Photo by John E. Marriott / Wilderness Prints
By Dr. Valli Fraser-Celin
Doney ED, Frank B, Clark DA (2025) Broadening the spectrum of conflict and coexistence: A case study example of human-wolf interactions in British Columbia, Canada. PLoS ONE 20(2): e0318566. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0318566
There has been a notable shift in the human-wildlife interaction scholarship to focus on coexistence rather than conflict. However, critiques from scholars in the field have raised concerns that not only is ‘coexistence’ hard to define, the shift from focusing on coexistence erases the realities of conflict and the challenges of sharing spaces with wildlife. This research paper aims to demonstrate that the concept of coexistence should indeed include ‘conflict’, to pay attention to the realities of living with wildlife, and to develop a collaborative tool – the Human-Wildlife Interaction Matrix (HWIM) – to support conservation planning.
Photo by Alvina Spence / Getty Images
The paper begins by discussing the main critiques of the human-wildlife conflict and coexistence terms: 1) forgetting about conflict; 2) perceived naïveté of coexistence; and 3) uncertainty of practicality. The authors argue that, in order to better understand what coexistence means and entails, researchers and practitioners should, firstly,, not ignore the existence of conflict and the real challenges people have when sharing spaces with wildlife; secondly, coexistence should be seen as dynamic and ever-changing according to context rather than a fixed outcome; finally, there is some ambiguity about the practicality of what coexistence actually means, therefore, more collaborative and contextual conservation planning is needed.
To illustrate these challenges and potential solutions, the researchers used a case study of human-wolf interactions in the Pacific Rim National Park Reserve (PRNPR) in British Columbia, situated on the territories of nine Nuu-chah-nulth First Nations. Through 32 interviews with community members who were knowledgeable about human-wolf interactions in the area.
Photo by John E. Marriott / WildernessPrints.com
Participants identified conflict with wolves to entail: attacks/killing (e.g. attacks on pets and aggression toward humans), cognitive and affective conflict (e.g. fear and perceived risk), food conditioning/habituation, no healthy fear/respect for wolves, camping, development, photography/videography, tourism/visitation. Participants then identified coexistence as education/awareness/communication, cognitive/affective coexistence (e.g. positive/neutral attitudes or emotions or positive behaviour), hazing, First Nations Importance/Traditional Knowledge, and policy. Overall, coexistence is “largely about sharing space, respect, and responsibility” as well as human behaviour in this contextualized examination of human-wolf coexistence. This case study illustrates the variety in definitions of conflict and coexistence.
An outcome of this research was the HWIM, used to illustrate the various ways different people conceptualize conflict and coexistence. This practical and collaborative tool allows conservationists to visually outline and combine the behavioural and cognitive/affective elements of human-wildlife interactions. This tool allows participants to openly discuss and identify targeted strategies to address conflict.
The authors identify three requirements to use the HWIM:
1 The HWIM should be used within a research and/or engagement process where diverse interest groups populate the matrix in a flexible and engaging manner.
2 The HWIM should focus on inclusion and open dialogue on sensitive/controversial issues to build trust, emphasize flexibility within the matrix, and move beyond coexistence as simply the end goal and to rather understand the barriers to more trusting and collaborative institutions for coexistence.
3 The HWIM should focus on contextual definitions of conflict and coexistence given that these concepts vary among people, regions, and species.
This research highlights that conflict and coexistence are dynamic and contextual; the HWIM also illustrates that conflict and coexistence are indeed interconnected, and that understanding conflict is integral to developing coexistence solutions that are localized to the conflict situation.
Additionally, the authors highlight that successful coexistence and conservation strategies require collaboration and open communication between conservationists and the people living with wildlife and that both human well-being and wildlife conservation efforts should be prioritized; the HWIM is offered as a practical and flexible visualization tool that can engender more inclusive, collaborative, and open coexistence planning conversations.
About Dr. Valli Fraser-Celin
Dr. Valli Fraser-Celin holds a PhD in Geography from the University of Guelph where she studied human-African wild dog conflict and conservation in Botswana, Africa. Valli has always been interested in the human dimensions of wildlife, in particular, humans’ relationships with large carnivores, she collaborated with the Fur-Bearers on a research project exploring Canadians’ perceptions of and knowledge about wolves. Valli is also passionate about dogs, and advocates for dog welfare through her Instagram @thelivesofwilddogs. In her spare time, she runs a pet pantry at her local community centre for pet guardians experiencing pet food insecurity.
